?germane

germane發(fā)音

英：[d??:'me?n]　　美：[d???men]

英：　　美：

germane中文意思翻譯

adj.有密切關(guān)系的, 恰當的

germane詞形變化

名詞: germaneness | 副詞: germanely |

germane常見(jiàn)例句

1 、The old German Empire ceased to exist in 1918.───到一九一八年，舊德意志帝國不復存在。

2 、"Oh, dat iss all over," said the German.───“噢，這事已經(jīng)過(guò)去了，"那個(gè)德國人說(shuō)。

3 、She speaks French and German and also a little Russian.───她會(huì )說(shuō)法語(yǔ)，德語(yǔ)，還會(huì )說(shuō)一點(diǎn)兒俄語(yǔ)。

4 、They got one over us in the end by deciding to speak in German.───他們決定說(shuō)德語(yǔ)，終於略勝我們一籌。

5 、He passed his German oral exam.───他通過(guò)了德文口試。

6 、He does not know English, to say nothing of German or French.───他不懂英文，更不要說(shuō)德文和法文了。

7 、Germans get that rocket, the fight's over.─── 德國人只要拿到火箭 就沒(méi)有仗可打了

8 、His French and English vocabularies are not as large as his German.───他的法語(yǔ)及英語(yǔ)字匯不如他的徵兆字匯多。

9 、She is German by birth but is now a French citizen.───她在德國出生而現在是法國公民。

10 、He speaks English, but his native tongue is German.───他會(huì )說(shuō)英語(yǔ)，但他的母語(yǔ)是德語(yǔ)。

11 、She was German by birth but is now of French citizenship.───她在德國出生但現在是法國國籍。

12 、That's german for someone who isn't but knows.─── 德語(yǔ)意為了解但卻不是格林生物的人

13 、He speaks German besides English.───他懂英語(yǔ)而外還會(huì )說(shuō)德語(yǔ)。

14 、Out of a maximum security german prison.─── 能逃出一個(gè)最高警戒的監獄

15 、Her native language/tongue is German.───她的母語(yǔ)是德語(yǔ).

16 、German writer whose novellas and dramas, including The Broken Pitcher(1811), concern characters torn between reason and emotion and between heroism and cowardice.───克萊斯特，亨利希·馮1777－1811德國作家，他的中篇**和戲劇包括破甕記(1811年), 其中涉及了人物在理智和情感、英雄主義和懦弱之間的折磨

17 、They had had several brushes with German cavalry.───他們曾和德國人的騎兵有過(guò)幾次接觸。

18 、He talked of German philosophy and French fiction.───他談到德國的哲學(xué)和法國的**。

19 、They can speak English and Knows German as well.───他們能說(shuō)英語(yǔ)也動(dòng)德語(yǔ).

20 、He feared the revival of German nationalism.───他擔心德國國家主義會(huì )死灰復燃。

21 、The meeting with the German distributor has been advanced from11: 00 to9: 30.───與德國銷(xiāo)售人員的會(huì )晤由11：00提前到9：30。

22 、But I'm trying to read german philosophy.─── 但我正試著(zhù)學(xué)習德國哲學(xué)呢

23 、He was born of German parents.───他的父母是德國人。

24 、He had learned enough German to carry on a conversation.───他已學(xué)了足夠的德語(yǔ)來(lái)進(jìn)行會(huì )話(huà)。

25 、German shipping had thus come to a standstill.───因此德國的航運完全停頓。

26 、German neighborhoods white is more than politics.─── 保持德國社會(huì )的純正不僅關(guān)乎*

27 、Is German on your school's curriculum?───你們學(xué)校有德語(yǔ)課嗎?

28 、He was born of/to German parents.───他的生身父母是德國人。

29 、It's free of charge to learn German in Germany.───在德國學(xué)德語(yǔ)是免費的。

30 、Your English is infinitely better than my German.───你的英語(yǔ)比我的德語(yǔ)好得太多了。

31 、Can you translate this German letter for me?───你能把這封德文信給我翻譯一下嗎?

32 、Release our second German Album.───發(fā)行了我們第二張德國專(zhuān)輯。

33 、Chinese, German or Mexican foods.───中餐、德式餐或墨西哥餐，

34 、The Austrian speaks German, and I speak it, too.───奧地利人講德語(yǔ)，我也能講這種語(yǔ)言。

35 、But I do have a certain sway with the appropriate german authorities.─── 但是我和德國權力機構 有點(diǎn)關(guān)系

36 、She knows no English, much less German.───她不懂英語(yǔ)，更不用說(shuō)德語(yǔ)了。

37 、It's more useful to learn modern languages, such as English and German, than Latin.───學(xué)習英語(yǔ)和德語(yǔ)等現代語(yǔ)言比學(xué)習拉丁語(yǔ)更為有用。

38 、He speaks German so well, that he's often taken for a native.───他德語(yǔ)說(shuō)得很好，常被誤以為是德國人。

39 、She' s a German who was naturalized in Canada.───她是入了加拿大籍的德國人.

40 、The germane question is whether sodium in water is corrosive.───與這個(gè)問(wèn)題密切相關(guān)的問(wèn)題是水中的鈉離子是否具有腐蝕性。

41 、She complimented him on his excellent German.───她夸獎他德語(yǔ)棒極了。

42 、Over the first four laps, Bedford stayed abreast of the German runner.───在頭四圈里，貝德福德一直與那名德國賽跑選手并駕齊驅。

43 、It was in fact the spearpoint of the German lance.───它確實(shí)是德國長(cháng)矛的鋒尖。

44 、Not only was everything that he had taken away from him, but also his German citizenship.───不僅他所有的一切都被沒(méi)收或撤消了，而且連他的德國公民權也被剝奪了。

45 、I have no idea how that is germane to this conversation.─── 這跟咱們所說(shuō)的話(huà)題 有關(guān)系嗎

46 、He is a man of German birth.───他是個(gè)德國血統的男子。

47 、While fascinating, this philosophical discussion is hardly germane.─── 雖然很有爭執性 這種哲理性的討論能卻并不貼切實(shí)際

48 、I do not think that germane to your situation.─── 我覺(jué)得這可解不了你的燃眉之急

49 、Can you translate this passage into German?───你能把這一段文字譯成德語(yǔ)嗎?

50 、She has some knowledge of German.───她懂一些德語(yǔ)。

51 、German historian whose greatly influential history of Rome(published1811-1832) established the modern scientific study of history.───尼布爾，雷恩霍德1892－1971美國神學(xué)家，主張以倫理道德及基督教戒條來(lái)對抗社會(huì )問(wèn)題

52 、He studied the German market to find the potential there for profitable investment.───他對德國的市場(chǎng)進(jìn)行了研究以尋求投資獲利的可能性。

53 、Fixed a german hotkey bug in battle. Net chat.───修正了聊天時(shí)德國熱鍵的bug。

54 、Can you translate this letter from German into English?───你能把這封信由德文譯成英文嗎？

55 、They spoke a sort of fractured German.───他們講德語(yǔ)結結巴巴。

56 、It would be useful if it was against the germans and not their own.─── 背后捅刀子應該用來(lái)對付德國人 不是自己人

57 、She is British but also has German connections.───她是英國人，但也有一些德國親戚。

58 、Crossing9 nations in the center of Europe from its German source to its Romanian mouth, flows the Danube river.───多瑙河發(fā)源于德國，流經(jīng)歐洲中部的9個(gè)國家，在羅馬尼亞匯入大海。

59 、First-year students may electFrench or German.───一年級學(xué)生可以選修法語(yǔ)或德語(yǔ)。

60 、You may have the option of German or French.───你可以自由選擇德文或法文。

61 、German physicist. He won a1905 Nobel Prize for his work on cathode rays.───勒納，菲利普1862－1947德國物理學(xué)家。因在陰極射線(xiàn)方面的成果而榮獲1905年諾貝爾獎

62 、If only I would have a good chance to study German.───但愿我將能得到一個(gè)學(xué)習德語(yǔ)的機會(huì )。

63 、Does your brother intend to study German?───你哥哥想學(xué)德語(yǔ)嗎?

64 、The High German dialect of Bavaria and Austria.───巴伐利亞語(yǔ)一種巴伐利亞地區和奧地利的高地德語(yǔ)

65 、She spoke in German and in broken English.───她說(shuō)德語(yǔ)，也能說(shuō)不地道的英語(yǔ)。

66 、Sarah Connor sings the German anthem. Wrong!───也不知道哪里唱錯了!

67 、They supported Japan's taking over of all the former German interests in Shandong Province.───他們支持日本接管德國以前在山東省的所有權益。

68 、A German scientist interrupted me and asked if I came from China.───一位德國科學(xué)家打斷了我，并問(wèn)我是否來(lái)自中國。

69 、He knows French and German, not to mention English.───他熟悉法語(yǔ)和德語(yǔ)，更不用說(shuō)英語(yǔ)啦。

70 、She can speak not only German but also French.───她不只能說(shuō)德國話(huà)也能說(shuō)法國話(huà)。

71 、He speaks fluent German.───他操一口流利的德語(yǔ)。

72 、He passed in German, but failed in English.───他德語(yǔ)考試及格了，但英語(yǔ)沒(méi)及格。

73 、He asks questions germane to the issue.───他問(wèn)了一些與論點(diǎn)相關(guān)的問(wèn)題。

74 、He asks questions that are germane and central to the issue.───他問(wèn)了一些與論點(diǎn)有密切關(guān)系的重要問(wèn)題。

75 、He translated it from English into German.───他把它從英文翻譯成德文。

76 、He knows no English, to say nothing of French or German.───他連英語(yǔ)都不懂，更不用說(shuō)法語(yǔ)和德語(yǔ)了。

77 、It's built by German about 70 years ago.───它是70年前德國人造的。

78 、Do you speak either French or German ?───你會(huì )說(shuō)法語(yǔ)或德語(yǔ)嗎?

79 、Have you got the contract in German?───合同中有沒(méi)有德文本?

80 、Karl Marx was born in Germany, and German was his native language.───卡爾馬克思生于德國，德語(yǔ)是他的本族語(yǔ)。

81 、At the end of the last century, a marvelous spire was added, which makes it soar up slenderly into the German skies.───上世紀末期，它又被加上了完美的塔尖，俏麗地矗立在德國的天空。

82 、House in the St German des Pres Quarter, Paris.───巴黎。圣日爾曼區的房宅。

83 、German troops occupied Paris during World War II.───二戰期間德軍占領(lǐng)了巴黎。

84 、Karl Marx had tried to harness the German will .───卡爾·馬克思曾試圖駕御德意志民族的意志。

85 、Hindenburg was elected President of German.───興登堡當先為德國總統。

86 、They were heading towards the German border.───他們正前往德國邊界。

87 、Sing-Song: can you write something in german?───你會(huì )用德語(yǔ)寫(xiě)東西嗎?

88 、Everybody was annoyed at the German tourists who seemed to think they had some divine right to the best positions around the swimming pool.───大家都對德國旅游者們很生氣，他們似乎以為自己有占據游泳池周?chē)罴盐恢玫纳袷谕鯔唷?/p>

89 、He spoke with a hint of German accent.───他說(shuō)話(huà)帶點(diǎn)德國口音。

90 、He has a good grasp of German grammar.───他德語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法掌握得很好。

急需一篇關(guān)于醫學(xué)檢驗方面的專(zhuān)業(yè)醫語(yǔ)的文章和中文翻譯

Immunology is the graduate student object resist original material immunity should answer and its method of living creature- medical science science.Immunity should the answer is the reaction that the machine body resists the original incitement, also is resist the original material to carry on identifying and expeling of a kind of biology process.

As early as more than 1000 year agos, the people discovered the immunity phenomenon, and develop the immunity prevention toward the infectious disease from here.The Chinese invented to use the person first the 痘痂 skin inoculates with the prevention smallpox, and at 15 centuries in the in the late Ming Dynasty 隆 celebrates the year have to compare to improve greatly, and get the extensive application.Afterwards, this great invention spreads Japan North Korea, Russia, Turkey and many nations of British etc..Empress British doctor the piano 納 studies to use the method that the cowpox germ prevent°froms the smallpox on these grounds, developping the vast foreground to the prevention of the infectious disease for the immunology.The whole world ability exterminates the smallpox in the end of 70's in 20 centuries, connecting to get smallpox vaccination the germ to develop the huge function.

End of 19 centuries, the French chemist, the microbiology a 巴斯 is virtuous in study the person and the infectious disease of the animal, analyzed the immunity phenomenon.Combine to inspire in the piano 納 under, he invents to use to reduce the poisonous anthrax rod bacteria seedling stub to make into the vaccine, the anthrax disease of the prevention animal;Use to reduce the poisonous stub of poisonous rabies to make into the vaccine, prevent°from the mankind's rabies.

A zoologist of 著(zhù) plum 契 尼 section man is after long-term research insect gobble up the phenomenon of the foreign body with the animal cell, pointing out the white cell and liver, the 脾 organizations in the bodies in 1883 in of gobble up the cell to have to gobble up and digest the ability of the germs.German bacteriology house, immunology house shell the wood discovers that the immunity has the antitoxin of the anti- diphtheria toxin in the serum in 1890, Japanese bacteriology house north in firewood three the 郎s also discover the anti- tetanus infection the antitoxin of the toxin, two people common research serum therapy success, to the treatment diphtheria and tetanus infection the sufferer obtains the good result.

From now on, the people start inquiry into the immunity mechanism, seeing the neutralization that the cell gobbles up the function and antitoxin is the basis of the particularity immunity, and open the exhibition cell immunity and the body fluid immunity two universitieses to send gradually of contend for the 鳴 .

The leader of the cell immunity school of thought is the plum 契 尼 section man, the leader of the body fluid immunity school of thought is a 埃 of German bacteriology 爾 benefit rare.The benefit of 埃爾 is rare to use the biochemistry method research immunity phenomenon, being the foundation with the protein chemistry and the sugar chemistry especially, the study antigen and essence and its interactions of the antibody, put forward the side chain theory of the antibody formation in 1896, this ory is down to date to still have the actual meaning.Two universities send of contend for 鳴's promoting immunology develop.

To the 60's in 20 centuries, have already attained the level of the molecular biology to the research of the body fluid immunity, have already made the member structure and functions of the pure antibody.At the same time, also made the obvious progress to the research of the cell immunity, think that the small lymphoid cell is to be placed in the decrepitude in the past eventually in last phase, but already affirmative it is the lymphoid cell that a major type of the immune system has the immunity activity now, rising to emphasize to want the function in develop the immunity function.

Henceforth the people further clarified the structure of the small lymphoid cell, and the occurrence of the individual and divide the process, especially at miscellaneous handed over the lump technique to obtain the achievement of the breakthrough, this not only enriched the knowledge of the general cytology, and for acquire the single gram 隆 antibody or lay the quality material to develop a new road.

Many scholars still notice:When the cause microorganism invade, the machine body can acquire the particularity immunity on the other hand, on the other hand also will appear the machine body immunity to injure.Since the late hair style that a section of German bacteriology 赫 research tubercle rod bacteria cause changed the reaction of 態(tài) , the people discover gradually not only germs and its outcomes can cause the machine body immunity to injure, connect the different race serum egg white even many easy chemistry materials enter the machine body again, also will make the machine body the organization encounters the breakage.

Middle of 20 centuries, transplant along with the organization organ of open the exhibition, to transplant the thing to reject, the immunity bear to is repress by sex, immunity, immunity blemish, oneself immunity, the tumor immunity etc. carried on the thorough research, the important meaning that know that the thymus gland, the method surname bag and spleens are in the machine body immunity function, know past the unilateral that the immunity process limits at the anti- infection immunity, also know immunity should answer is since can defendoof infect and protect the machine body and can result in immunity injure and cause a biology process of paroxysm again.Also is to say, immunity is the living creature body to everything not the personal member carries on identify with expel of process, is to maintain a physiology of machine to respond, is the machine body identifies by one's own of a kind of widespread biology phenomenon.

The modern immunology think that the immunity function of the machine body is to resist the original incitement of should answer, but immunity should the answer express again identifies the oneself and expels for the immune system not personal of ability.The immunity function identifies to produce result according to the immunity.This kind of function has mostly:Outward the immunity defense of the source foreign body( is mainly the contagion factor);Do away with the immunity of decline or hurt cell, to keep the oneself stability;Cancellation mutation the immunity surveillance of the cell.

Only the immune system develops the homologous function and keeps the opposite balance under the condition of normal, the machine body then can maintain the existence.If the immunity function take place unusually, by all means cause the machine body balance maladjustment, appear the immunity pathology variety.

The immune system identifies in the process of exertive immunity function is an important premise.The whole living creatures all have this kind of ability.The unicellular living creature has the food of distinguish, invades the microorganism only and oneself the cell composition etc. the low class identifies the function.The machine body immune system of the vertebrates is gradually perfect, not only having the immunity organ anding the immunity cells of the integrity, and living cell of immunity canning but also producing the particularity antibody and the factor of 琳巴s, identifying the oneself thus and accurately, expeling the foreign body to attain the machine body inside the opposite stability of the environment, this all has the great significance towards protecting the oneself and continuing the race and living creatures evolutions.Full development of the immune system of high etc. living creature, it to inside various antigen foreign body of the outside environment stimulate since express a diverse sex and adaptabilities, and then express a particularity and recall sex, this to living creature of evolution process, living creature grow the existence and orientations of the department to have the important influence.

New China was established, the immunology has already very greatly have to make progress in the application on the medical science.The living creature of the prevention and cure infectious disease products to not only satisfy the local demand, but also support a little bit other nations.The new vaccine,such as chemistry vaccine, B a hepatitis vaccine...etc., that recent years research to manufacture, have already neared to advanced level in world.China has already exterminated the smallpox, and exterminate and control the human life plague and true sex choleras basically, waiting the violent infectious disease.The spinal cord ash quality 炎 , measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus infection...etc. outbreak rate of the familiar infectious disease has already lowered consumedly.

The modern immunology develops the theories system of become the current oneself gradually and has independent course of special research method again.It provided some new meanses for the research of the biology.

As early as the beginning of 20 centuries, the people have already made use of the immunology to distinguish analyse the mankind's blood type.The plant classification learn very early application the method of the immunology.Also adopted the immunology technique while study the toxin of the plant and animal.For example,1889-1890 years, the people studies the diphtheria toxin and the tetanus infection toxins with the immunology technique, using it again later on to study the plant toxin, such as the castor toxin, the croton toxin and snake poison, spider poison within the animal toxins.Moreover, the people make use of to precipitate to respond to discriminate the blood stain of the animal early very much.Some new techniques that recent years develop, such as project the immunity, the immunity fluorescence and the 酶 immunity etc., all provided the practical research means for the biology.

Say from the substance, modern immunology however is a branch of the living creature- medical science.But, along with the technical development of science, it sends to living a many independent branch course again, for example, with the modern biology germane member immunology, the immunity biology and the immunity geneticses, learn with germane immunity hematology, the immunity pharmacology of medical science, immunity pathology, grow the immunology and transplant the immunology, tumor immunology, anti- infection immunology, clinical immunology etc..

Now, have already attained the cell level and the member levels to the research of the immunology, the people are work hard the basic physiology regulation of the study living creature- immunity of oneself stability mechanism.Many important problems within medical science, respond such as the oneself immunity, super 敏 , tumor immunity, transplant the immunity, the immunity heredity...etc., will get necessarily better resolve.

免疫學(xué)是研究生物體對抗原物質(zhì)免疫應答性及其方法的生物-醫學(xué)科學(xué)。免疫應答是機體對抗原刺激的反應，也是對抗原物質(zhì)進(jìn)行識別和排除的一種生物學(xué)過(guò)程。

早在1000多年前，人們就發(fā)現了免疫現象，并由此發(fā)展起來(lái)對傳染病的免疫預防。中國人首先發(fā)明了用人痘痂皮接種以預防天花，并且在十五世紀中后期的明朝隆慶年間有較大改進(jìn)，并得到廣泛的應用。后來(lái)，這一偉大發(fā)明傳播到日本朝鮮、俄國、土耳其和英國等許多國家。后英國醫生琴納據此研究出用牛痘菌預防天花的方法，為免疫學(xué)對傳染病的預防開(kāi)辟了廣闊的前景。全世界能在20世紀70年代末消滅天花，接種牛痘菌發(fā)揮了巨大作用。

19世紀末，法國化學(xué)家、微生物學(xué)家巴斯德于研究人和動(dòng)物的傳染病時(shí)，分析了免疫現象。并在琴納的啟發(fā)下，他發(fā)明用減毒炭疽桿菌苗株制成疫苗，預防動(dòng)物的炭疽??；用減毒狂犬病毒株制成疫苗，預防人類(lèi)的狂犬病。

著(zhù)名動(dòng)物學(xué)家梅契尼科夫在長(cháng)期研究昆蟲(chóng)和動(dòng)物細胞吞噬異物的現象后，于1883年指出體內的白細胞和肝、脾組織中的吞噬細胞具有吞噬和消化細菌的能力。德國細菌學(xué)家、免疫學(xué)家貝林于1890年發(fā)現免疫血清中有抗白喉毒素的抗毒素存在，日本細菌學(xué)家北里柴三郎也發(fā)現抗破傷風(fēng)毒素的抗毒素，兩人共同研究血清療法成功，對治療白喉和破傷風(fēng)患者取得良好效果。

從此，人們開(kāi)始探討免疫機制，把細胞的吞噬作用和抗毒素的中和作用看成是特異性免疫的根據，并逐步開(kāi)展細胞免疫和體液免疫兩大學(xué)派的爭鳴。

細胞免疫學(xué)派的首領(lǐng)是梅契尼科夫，體液免疫學(xué)派的首領(lǐng)是德國細菌學(xué)家埃爾利希。埃爾利希用生物化學(xué)方法研究免疫現象，特別是以蛋白質(zhì)化學(xué)和糖化學(xué)作為基礎，探討抗原和抗體的本質(zhì)及其相互作用，于1896年提出抗體形成的側鏈學(xué)說(shuō)，這一學(xué)說(shuō)直到今天還具有實(shí)際意義。兩大學(xué)派的爭鳴促進(jìn)了免疫學(xué)的發(fā)展。

到20世紀60年代，對體液免疫的研究已經(jīng)達到分子生物學(xué)的水平，已經(jīng)弄清抗體的分子結構和功能。同時(shí)，對細胞免疫的研究也取得了明顯的進(jìn)展，過(guò)去認為小淋巴細胞是處于衰老終末期，而現在已肯定它是免疫系統的一大類(lèi)具有免疫活性的淋巴細胞，在發(fā)揮免疫功能中起著(zhù)重要作用。

此后人們進(jìn)一步闡明了小淋巴細胞的結構，以及個(gè)體的發(fā)生和分化過(guò)程，特別是在雜交瘤技術(shù)方面取得了突破性的成就，這不僅豐富了一般細胞學(xué)的知識，而且為獲得單克隆抗體或介質(zhì)物質(zhì)開(kāi)辟了一條新的道路。

許多學(xué)者還注意到：當病原微生物入侵的時(shí)候，機體一方面能夠獲得特異性免疫，另一方面也會(huì )出現機體免疫損害。自從德國細菌學(xué)家科赫研究結核桿菌所引起的遲發(fā)型變態(tài)反應以來(lái)，人們逐步發(fā)現不僅細菌及其產(chǎn)物可以引起機體免疫損害，就連異種血清蛋白甚至許多很簡(jiǎn)單的化學(xué)物質(zhì)再次進(jìn)入機體，也會(huì )使機體組織遭到破壞。

20世紀中期，隨著(zhù)組織器官移植的開(kāi)展，對移植物排斥、免疫耐受性、免疫抑制、免疫缺陷、自身免疫、腫瘤免疫等進(jìn)行了深入的研究，認識到胸腺、法氏囊和脾臟在機體免疫功能中的重要意義，認識到過(guò)去把免疫過(guò)程局限于抗傳染免疫的片面性，也認識到免疫應答是既可防御傳染和保護機體、又可造成免疫損害和引起疾病的一個(gè)生物學(xué)過(guò)程。也就是說(shuō)，免疫是生物體對一切非己分子進(jìn)行識別與排除的過(guò)程，是維持機體相對穩定的一種生理反應，是機體自我識別的一種普遍生物學(xué)現象。

現代免疫學(xué)認為，機體的免疫功能是對抗原刺激的應答，而免疫應答又表現為免疫系統識別自己和排除非己的能力。免疫功能根據免疫識別發(fā)揮作用。這種功能大致有：對外源性異物(主要是傳染性因子)的免疫防御；去除衰退或損傷細胞的免疫，以保持自身穩定；消除突變細胞的免疫監視。

只有免疫系統在正常條件下發(fā)揮相應的作用和保持相對的平衡，機體才能維持生存。如果免疫功能發(fā)生異常，必然導致機體平衡失調，出現免疫病理變化。

免疫系統在發(fā)揮免疫功能的過(guò)程中，識別是個(gè)重要的前提。一切生物都具有這種能力。單細胞生物只具有分辨食物、入侵微生物和本身細胞成分等低級的識別功能。脊椎動(dòng)物的機體免疫系統逐漸完善，不僅具有完整的免疫器官和免疫細胞，而且免疫活性細胞還能產(chǎn)生特異性抗體和琳巴因子，從而準確地識別自己，排除異物以達到機體內環(huán)境的相對穩定，這對保護自己、延續種族和生物進(jìn)化都有重大意義。高等生物的免疫系統充分發(fā)展，它對內外環(huán)境的各種抗原異物刺激既表現出多樣性和適應性，又表現出特異性和回憶性，這對生物的進(jìn)化過(guò)程、生物種系的生存和適應具有重大影響。

新中國成立以來(lái)，免疫學(xué)在醫學(xué)上的應用已經(jīng)有了很大進(jìn)展。防治傳染病的生物制品不僅滿(mǎn)足國內的需要，而且支援其他一些國家。近年研制的新疫苗如化學(xué)疫苗、乙型肝炎疫苗等，已經(jīng)接近世界先進(jìn)水平。中國已經(jīng)消滅天花，并且基本上消滅和控制了人間鼠疫和真性霍亂，等烈性傳染病。脊髓灰質(zhì)炎、麻疹、白喉、百日咳、破傷風(fēng)等常見(jiàn)傳染病的發(fā)病率已經(jīng)大大降低。

現代免疫學(xué)逐步發(fā)展成為既有自身的理論體系、又有特殊研究方法的獨立學(xué)科。它為生物學(xué)的研究提供了一些新的手段。

早在20世紀初，人們已經(jīng)利用免疫學(xué)來(lái)區分人類(lèi)的血型。植物分類(lèi)學(xué)很早就應用免疫學(xué)的方法。在研究植物和動(dòng)物的毒素時(shí)也采用了免疫學(xué)技術(shù)。例如，1889～1890年，人們用免疫學(xué)技術(shù)研究白喉毒素和破傷風(fēng)毒素，隨后又用它來(lái)研究植物毒素，如蓖麻毒素、巴豆毒素和動(dòng)物毒素中的蛇毒、蜘蛛毒。另外，人們很早就利用沉淀反應鑒別動(dòng)物的血跡。近年發(fā)展起來(lái)的一些新技術(shù)，如放射免疫、免疫熒光和酶免疫等，都為生物學(xué)提供了實(shí)用的研究手段。

從實(shí)質(zhì)上說(shuō)，現代免疫學(xué)不過(guò)是生物-醫學(xué)的一個(gè)分支。但是，隨著(zhù)科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，它本身又派生出許多獨立的分支學(xué)科，例如，與現代生物學(xué)有密切關(guān)系的分子免疫學(xué)、免疫生物學(xué)和免疫遺傳學(xué)，與醫學(xué)有密切關(guān)系的免疫血液學(xué)、免疫藥理學(xué)、免疫病理學(xué)、生殖免疫學(xué)、移植免疫學(xué)、腫瘤免疫學(xué)、抗感染免疫學(xué)、臨床免疫學(xué)等。

現在，對免疫學(xué)的研究已經(jīng)達到細胞水平和分子水平，人們正在努力探討生物的基本生理規律——免疫的自身穩定機制。醫學(xué)中的許多重要問(wèn)題，如自身免疫、超敏反應、腫瘤免疫、移植免疫、免疫遺傳等，必將得到更好的解決。

有寫(xiě)字翻譯不出來(lái) 見(jiàn)諒

請用英語(yǔ)解釋幾個(gè)詞語(yǔ)：學(xué)風(fēng)、內向、外向、積極進(jìn)取、上進(jìn)心。

學(xué)風(fēng):the sytle of the study

內向:diffidence

外向:extroversion

積極進(jìn)取:up-rising

上進(jìn)心:the heart to progress